The human environment is a very social one. Family, friends, colleagues, strangers – they all provide a continuous stream of information that we need to track and make sense of. Who is dating whom? Who is in a fight with whom? While our capacity for dealing with such a large social network is impressive, it’s not something especially unique to humans. Other primates do it too.
We – humans and other primates such as monkeys and apes – have something called social knowledge that allows us to keep track of the social dynamics of our friends, neighbours and even enemies.
What is perhaps different about humans, though, is the way in which we communicate about these dynamics. If I see my neighbours saying hello, I can easily express this in a sentence: “David is greeting Iris.” As far as research has shown, other primates can’t do this.
They can communicate about individual entities, such as alarm calling when there’s danger, or producing food calls when they find a food they like. But they don’t seem to express how an action is linked to the individuals involved.
And this is exactly what happens when I make a sentence like, “David greets Iris.” First, I say who is doing the action (David – the agent), then I express what he is doing (the action), and finally, to whom he is doing the action (the patient).
This structuring of the event is not only the case in English. The majority of languages prioritise agents through grammar, suggesting that this is something that is universal among humans.
Cross-linguistic studies have revealed similar biases when people view images of events. In tasks where people have to describe an image depicting an action, they are rapidly able to identify the agent, and spend more looking at the agent than the patient.
This points to the possibility that our ability to “deconstruct” events such as these, and our apparent bias for agents, might have its roots in an era before language evolved.
Eye tracking
To test this, alongside colleagues from Switzerland, I conducted an eye-tracking study with human adults, six-month-old infants, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans in a zoo.
We showed participants videos of social interactions, such as one orangutan embracing another, and non-social interactions, such a person pushing a shelf, using a technique called infra-red eye tracking. This technique allows one to remotely determine the position of the eyes when looking at a screen. This meant that we could work with apes who watched the videos voluntarily, through a designated window.
A chimpanzee watching a video of an agent (left) brushing the hair of a patient (right). Red circles show her gaze switching over time.CC BY-SA
Our results revealed that both adults and apes were quick to identify agents, but only in scenes where the patients were objects.
In social interactions, figuring out who was the agent and who was the patient seemed to take longer. Unexpectedly, only in scenes depicting food did participants look mostly at the agent (who was eating or carrying food).
This lack of prioritisation of the agent in other scenes is probably because we showed videos, rather than asking participants to make decisions from still images, where one needs to track the action as it happens.
Why food scenes trigger such strong attention for agents is unclear, but may be because paying attention to who has food is important for survival. Intriguingly, our results showed very similar gaze patterns between the adult humans and the apes. As each scene unfolded, their gaze alternated between agent and patient.
This suggests that apes make sense of such events in similar ways to people. What about infants? The infants showed very different gaze patterns. They appeared to mostly look at the background of each scene, suggesting that they were unable to identify information in the same way as adults.
This may be because, at this age, they cannot “compute” information at the same speed as adults, and probably also need to gain visual experience to help to quickly identify agents and patients.
Our findings, then, suggest that when presented with the kinds of scenes from which people can easily identify cause and effect, apes appear to be able to identify agents and patients – just like humans. This supports the idea that our propensity for “deconstructing” information about events is not something unique to language, but is an ability that we share with our closest living cousins.
Perhaps it provided a scaffold onto which we later built language. The question, then, is why other primates don’t communicate about events in the way that we do. This is a question to which we don’t yet have an answer.
However, it seems very possible that the social world in which humans and other apes evolved, may well have helped to drive this disposition for identifying agents and patients, through keeping track of all those love-hate relationships.
So next time you see your neighbours saying hello, let it be a reminder that apes seem to view the world in almost the same way as we do.
This research was supported by funding from: The National Center for Competence in Research “Evolving Language” (SNSF agreement number 51NF40_180888) Swiss National Science Foundation (project grant numbers 310030_185324, 100015_182845, PZ00P1_208915) The National Center for Competence in Research “Evolving Language” Top-Up Grant (grant number N603-18-01) Foundation for Research in Science and the Humanities at the University of Zurich (grant number 20-014) Seed money grant, University Research Priority Program “Evolution in Action”, University of Zurich Jacobs Foundation
Photo credit: Mercyeke/Instagram Happy Sunday, BNers. There’s something about Sundays that makes dressing up feel a little more special. Maybe it’s the calm before a…
English teacher Mr Yang is like no English teacher we’ve ever encountered before. On his TikTok account, he shares his Chinese versions of popular English…
<img src="https://www.mtlblog.com/media-library/a-narrow-street-in-italy-is-lined-with-historic-yellow-buildings-ornate-balconies-and-classic-street-lamps-right-a-coastal-v.jpg?id=56594846&width=1200&height=400&coordinates=0%2C136%2C0%2C136"/><br/><br/><p> If you're planning a <a href="https://www.mtlblog.com/montrealers-europe-2025">European getaway</a>, whether it's sipping wine in Paris, cycling through Amsterdam, or soaking up the history of Rome, you'll want to check <a href="https://www.mtlblog.com/tag/canada-travel-advisory">Canada's latest travel advisories</a> before you go.
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<p> Government travel advisories are <a href="https://travel.gc.ca/travelling/advisories" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">classified according to four risk levels</a>, from "Take normal security precautions" and "Exercise a high degree of caution" through to "Avoid non-essential travel" and "Avoid all travel."
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<p> The Government of Canada has flagged several popular countries, including France, Spain, Italy, and the U.K., as places where Canadian travellers should exercise a high degree of caution due to ongoing security concerns.
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<p> Keep in mind that these <a href="https://www.mtlblog.com/canadian-travel-advisories-caribbean">advisories</a> don't mean you should cancel your trip, but they do highlight the importance of staying aware, being particularly careful in high-risk areas, and keeping up with local security updates.
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<p> What's more, some of these countries have had terrorism threat advisories in place for months, if not years, so there's not necessarily any need to hold-off on booking your ticket if these spots are on your bucket list.
</p>
<p> Here's what you need to know before jetting off to some of <a href="https://www.mtlblog.com/air-transat-montreal-spain">Europe's most popular destinations</a>.
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<h3>France</h3><br/><blockquote class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/p/DGBM3t2uLJc/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link" data-instgrm-version="4" style="background:#FFF; border:0; border-radius:3px; box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width:658px; padding:0; width:99.375%; width:-webkit-calc(100% - 2px); width:calc(100% - 2px);">
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<a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/DGBM3t2uLJc/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link" style=" color:#000; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none; word-wrap:break-word;" target="_top">See on Instagram</a>
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</blockquote><script async="" defer="" src="//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js"></script><p>Last Updated: February 18, 2025</p><p>Risk Level: Exercise a high degree of caution in France due to the elevated threat of terrorism.<br/></p><p>Details: France is a bucket-list destination, whether you're sipping wine in a Parisian cafe, strolling through the lavender fields of Provence, or hitting the slopes in the Alps. But while the country offers beautiful architecture, culture, and food, officials warn that terrorism remains a concern.</p><p>Over the past few years, several attacks, both planned and opportunistic, have occurred, resulting in casualties. The French government has implemented <a href="https://www.sgdsn.gouv.fr/vigipirate" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">the Vigipirate plan</a>, a national security strategy designed to protect citizens and respond quickly to threats. France is currently at level 3 ("attack emergency"), the highest on the country's terrorism alert system.</p><p>As part of Operation Sentinelle, military brigades regularly patrol public spaces, transport hubs, and tourist hotspots, especially in Paris. Visitors should expect an increased security presence in busy areas. </p><p>Potential targets for attacks include government buildings, cultural sites, places of worship, major landmarks, markets, and public transit hubs.</p><p><a href="https://travel.gc.ca/destinations/france" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">France Travel Advisory</a></p><h3>Spain</h3><br><blockquote class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/p/C_D-l9jIYgQ/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" data-instgrm-version="4" style="background:#FFF; border:0; border-radius:3px; box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width:658px; padding:0; width:99.375%; width:-webkit-calc(100% - 2px); width:calc(100% - 2px);">
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<a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/C_D-l9jIYgQ/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" style=" color:#000; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none; word-wrap:break-word;" target="_top">See on Instagram</a>
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</blockquote><script async="" defer="" src="//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js"></script><p>Last Updated: February 21, 2025</p><p>Risk Level: Exercise a high degree of caution in Spain due to the threat of terrorism.<br/></p><p>Details: Details: From Barcelona's stunning architecture to Madrid's lively plazas and the sun-soaked beaches of the Costa del Sol, Spain is a dream destination for many. But while the country is known for its rich culture, delicious tapas, and vibrant nightlife, visitors must still be mindful of the terrorism threat.</p><p>Spain has experienced attacks in the past, some resulting in casualties. High-risk locations include government buildings, places of worship, transit hubs, and popular tourist areas such as markets, hotels, restaurants, and shopping centres.</p><p>Spain's national terrorism threat level is currently at 4 out of 5 ("high"), which means an attack is considered a real possibility. </p><p><a href="https://travel.gc.ca/destinations/spain" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Spain Travel Advisory</a></p><h3>The Netherlands</h3><br><blockquote class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/p/CyiKQgJMew4/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" data-instgrm-version="4" style="background:#FFF; border:0; border-radius:3px; box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width:658px; padding:0; width:99.375%; width:-webkit-calc(100% - 2px); width:calc(100% - 2px);">
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<a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/CyiKQgJMew4/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" style=" color:#000; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none; word-wrap:break-word;" target="_top">See on Instagram</a>
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</blockquote><script async="" defer="" src="//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js"></script><p>Last Updated: February 18, 2025</p><p>Risk Level: Exercise a high degree of caution in the Netherlands due to the threat of terrorism.<br/></p><p>Details: The Netherlands is famous for its picturesque canals, world-class museums, charming tulip fields, and laid-back culture. However, authorities warn that terrorism remains a concern, and attacks in the Netherlands cannot be ruled out. </p><p>The <a href="https://english.nctv.nl/topics/terrorist-threat-assessment-netherlands" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">country’s terrorism threat level</a> is currently at 4 out of 5 (“substantial”), meaning an attack is considered likely. High-risk locations include government buildings, places of worship, major transit hubs, and public areas like tourist attractions, restaurants, bars, markets, and shopping centres.</p><p>Security measures have been increased, especially in busy areas, and the Dutch government regularly updates the public on threat levels through local media.</p><p><a href="https://travel.gc.ca/destinations/netherlands" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">The Netherlands Travel Advisory</a></p><h3>Italy</h3><br><blockquote class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/p/DEFcJpzIVZj/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" data-instgrm-version="4" style="background:#FFF; border:0; border-radius:3px; box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width:658px; padding:0; width:99.375%; width:-webkit-calc(100% - 2px); width:calc(100% - 2px);">
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<a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/DEFcJpzIVZj/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" style=" color:#000; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none; word-wrap:break-word;" target="_top">See on Instagram</a>
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</blockquote><script async="" defer="" src="//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js"></script><p>Last Updated: February 26, 2025</p><p>Risk Level: Exercise a high degree of caution in Italy due to the threat of terrorism.<br/></p><p>Details: Rome is already one of the most visited cities in the world, but with the Jubilee 2025 set to take place from December 24, 2024, to January 6, 2026, expect an even bigger influx of tourists and pilgrims. This Holy Year will bring large-scale religious events, processions, and massive gatherings across the city, making planning ahead essential.</p><p>If you're heading to Rome during this time, be prepared for crowds, traffic disruptions, and heightened security measures. Police and military presence will be increased at major landmarks, transit hubs, and public spaces.</p><p>Stay alert, be mindful of your surroundings, and allow extra time for security checks if you're visiting major sites or attending Jubilee events.</p><p><a href="https://travel.gc.ca/destinations/italy" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Italy Travel Advisory</a></p><h3>Denmark</h3><br><blockquote class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/p/DB_ITSgTUZR/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" data-instgrm-version="4" style="background:#FFF; border:0; border-radius:3px; box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width:658px; padding:0; width:99.375%; width:-webkit-calc(100% - 2px); width:calc(100% - 2px);">
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<a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/DB_ITSgTUZR/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" style=" color:#000; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none; word-wrap:break-word;" target="_top">See on Instagram</a>
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</blockquote><script async="" defer="" src="//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js"></script><p>Last Updated: February 18, 2025</p><p>Risk Level: Exercise a high degree of caution in Denmark due to the threat of terrorism.<br/></p><p>Details: Denmark is known for its fairy-tale charm, sleek Scandinavian design, and effortlessly cool cities like Copenhagen.</p><p>However, officials warn that Denmark, like much of Europe, faces a significant terrorism threat. Attacks have occurred in various European cities, and potential targets include tourist attractions, government buildings, transportation hubs, and public spaces like markets, bars, and hotels.</p><p>The Danish Security and Intelligence Service <a href="https://pet.dk/en/threats-to-denmark/terrorism-and-extremism" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">ranks the country's terrorism threat</a> level at 4 out of 5, meaning an attack is considered a real possibility. Canadian visitors should stay alert, particularly during major events, religious holidays, and in crowded areas. </p><p><a href="https://travel.gc.ca/destinations/denmark" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Denmark Travel Advisory</a></p><h3>Germany</h3><br><blockquote class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/p/C-PpSjWAo7j/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link" data-instgrm-version="4" style="background:#FFF; border:0; border-radius:3px; box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width:658px; padding:0; width:99.375%; width:-webkit-calc(100% - 2px); width:calc(100% - 2px);">
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<a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/C-PpSjWAo7j/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link" style=" color:#000; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none; word-wrap:break-word;" target="_top">See on Instagram</a>
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</blockquote><script async="" defer="" src="//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js"></script><p>Last Updated: February 26, 2025</p><p>Risk Level: Exercise a high degree of caution in Germany due to the threat of terrorism.<br/></p><p>Details: Germany is a must-visit for history lovers, beer enthusiasts, and culture seekers alike. From the buzzing streets of Berlin to the fairytale castles of Bavaria, there's no shortage of incredible sights. </p><p>Whether you're wandering through a Christmas market, enjoying a bratwurst in a beer garden, or taking in world-class museums, the country is a bucket list spot for a reason. </p><p>That said, officials warn that Germany remains a potential target for terrorism. High-risk locations include government buildings, places of worship, airports, and public spaces like markets, shopping centres, bars, and hotels. Christmas markets, in particular, have been targeted in the past.</p><p>German authorities have a public alert system for terrorism, with updates communicated through local media. Expect visible security measures in busy areas, particularly in big cities.</p><p><a href="https://travel.gc.ca/destinations/germany" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Germany Travel Advisory</a></p><h3>Belgium</h3><br><blockquote class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/p/C3Fwpj8O-V4/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" data-instgrm-version="4" style="background:#FFF; border:0; border-radius:3px; box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width:658px; padding:0; width:99.375%; width:-webkit-calc(100% - 2px); width:calc(100% - 2px);">
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<a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/C3Fwpj8O-V4/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" style=" color:#000; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none; word-wrap:break-word;" target="_top">See on Instagram</a>
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</blockquote><script async="" defer="" src="//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js"></script><p>Last Updated: February 18, 2025</p><p>Risk Level: Exercise a high degree of caution in Belgium due to the threat of terrorism.<br/></p><p>Details: A must-visit for history lovers, foodies, and beer sippers, Belgium is a European hotspot that's brimming with charm and culture. That said, authorities warn that terrorism remains a concern here. </p><p>Belgium has experienced multiple attacks in the past, and further incidents cannot be ruled out. The national threat level was raised to 3 out of 4 following a shooting in Brussels in October 2023, meaning an attack is considered possible.</p><p>Security measures have been increased nationwide, with more police patrols, stricter security screenings, and heightened precautions in public spaces. </p><p><a href="https://travel.gc.ca/destinations/belgium" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Belgium Travel Advisory</a></p><h3>Sweden</h3><br><blockquote class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/p/DBRjG2asRCA/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" data-instgrm-version="4" style="background:#FFF; border:0; border-radius:3px; box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width:658px; padding:0; width:99.375%; width:-webkit-calc(100% - 2px); width:calc(100% - 2px);">
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<a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/DBRjG2asRCA/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" style=" color:#000; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none; word-wrap:break-word;" target="_top">See on Instagram</a>
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</blockquote><script async="" defer="" src="//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js"></script><p>Last Updated: February 19, 2025</p><p>Risk Level: Exercise a high degree of caution in Sweden due to the threat of terrorism.<br/></p><p>Details: Whether you've dreamed of strolling through Stockholm's charming old town or exploring the northern lights in Lapland, Sweden is a dreamy spot for travellers worldwide.</p><p>However, officials warn that the country faces an increased terrorism threat. <a href="https://www.krisinformation.se/en/hazards-and-risks/terrorism#:~:text=Assessment%20of%20terrorist%20threat%20level,be%204%20out%20of%205." rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Sweden's national threat level</a> was raised to 4 out of 5 in August 2023, meaning an attack is considered highly possible.</p><p>Security measures have been increased, especially in major cities, and updates on the threat level are communicated through local media.</p><p><a href="https://travel.gc.ca/destinations/sweden" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Sweden Travel Advisory</a></p><h3>United Kingdom</h3><br><blockquote class="instagram-media" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/p/DDufhRiMUvJ/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" data-instgrm-version="4" style="background:#FFF; border:0; border-radius:3px; box-shadow:0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width:658px; padding:0; width:99.375%; width:-webkit-calc(100% - 2px); width:calc(100% - 2px);">
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<a href="https://www.instagram.com/p/DDufhRiMUvJ/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link&igsh=MzRlODBiNWFlZA==" style=" color:#000; font-family:Arial,sans-serif; font-size:14px; font-style:normal; font-weight:normal; line-height:17px; text-decoration:none; word-wrap:break-word;" target="_top">See on Instagram</a>
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</blockquote><script async="" defer="" src="//platform.instagram.com/en_US/embeds.js"></script><p>Last Updated: February 18, 2025</p><p>Risk Level: Exercise a high degree of caution in the United Kingdom due to the threat of terrorism.<br/></p><p>Details: From iconic landmarks like Big Ben and Buckingham Palace to charming countryside escapes, the U.K. is a dream destination for many Canadians. </p><p>Whether you're catching a West End show, enjoying a proper Sunday roast, or exploring centuries-old castles, there's no shortage of things to see and do.</p><p>However, officials warn that terrorism remains a serious concern across the country. Attacks, including knife incidents, vehicle rammings, and explosions, have occurred, mostly in London but also in other cities. High-risk locations include government buildings, public spaces, and popular tourist hotspots like markets, bars, hotels, and transit hubs.</p><p>The <a href="https://www.gov.uk/terrorism-national-emergency" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">U.K.'s national terrorism threat level</a> is currently at 3 out of 5 ("substantial"), meaning an attack is considered likely. In Northern Ireland, the threat level is even higher at 4 ("severe"). Travellers should stay alert, especially at major events, religious gatherings, and busy public areas.</p><p><a href="https://travel.gc.ca/destinations/united-kingdom" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">United Kingdom Travel Advisory</a></p></br></br></br></br></br></br></br></br>
<p> While the threat of terrorism is something to be aware of, it shouldn't stop you from exploring these incredible destinations.
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<p> Whether you're wandering through historic streets, indulging in world-class cuisine, or soaking in breathtaking landscapes, each of these countries has so much to offer.
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<p> These advisories are simply reminders to stay informed, be vigilant, and take common-sense precautions while travelling. As long as you do that, you'll be prepared for an amazing — and safe — adventure.
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<em>This article's cover image was used for illustrative purposes only.</em>
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<em>Before you get going, check out our <a href="https://www.mtlblog.com/responsible-travel-guidelines" target="_blank">Responsible Travel Guide</a> so you can be informed, be safe, be smart, and most of all, be respectful on your trip.</em>
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